Story of Sound in Ancient India by Sudipta Dawn

Hello!

Here i’m sharing from my readings of historical texts of ancient India from the perspective of ‘sound”, tracing the presence of sound in Hindu theology which emerged from the Vedic sources which are primarily the creation of Aryans and later evolved into various practices and rituals which are said to be the result of synthesis with the non Aryans theological practices.

The concepts of sound and its import have remained remarkably true to its source material from the time of Vedas and have developed into musical concepts which have remained the foundation of Indian classical music. “Shabd” which is the Sanskrit word for sound, denoted practically both sound and word. In fact as we shall see they are inextricably conjoined in Hindu theology. Shabd is a pre human phenomenon, in fact it is the origin of the manifest universe, hence considered divine. It is initially the effect of dissolution of the Prakriti in Brahmanda and then thought to be the cause of this universe. Sound is considered in Indian philosophy as a quality (Guna) of the space (Akasa).

As our ears & soul yearn for the Anahata nada (unstuck & sound without aesthetics beauty) which is the silence in midst of the cacophony of mechanical noises (emanating from various aesthetically pleasing devices & highly motivated human beings) which seems to have caught the fancy of the masses, let us tune in to the sound of the ancient world to trace its journey through to the Kali Yuga (the current cyclic age). One can reminisce and feel a little assuaged by the idyllic soundscapes of the Indus Valley pastoral life, wherein lies the genesis of the Hindu religion and culture and where copper and benzene were known and which seems to be still endure in parts ” the village folk have, since times immemorial, mused to the multiple symphonic sounds of the Sindhian water – wheel and the moving bullock cart. They have hummed to the rhythm of the Charra (bells) tied around the necks of their buffaloes, the Cherr tied in the legs of their riding camels, the Chang round the necks of their oxen, and the Jhanne of the Charri and the Kirk (small iron bells and hence later inventions) produced by the grazing herds of goats and sheep. Up to the current, the multiple sounds of the Hurlo and Naar (the water wheels) provide a musical symphony to the Sindhi Hari (farmer) while those of the traveling bullock to the transport worker.”

The chronology of the knowledge of Vedic Hindu philosophy are encapsulated in books which are broadly categorised as Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Darshanas, Smritis, History & mythological literature.

We shall now briefly touch upon a few of these historical milestones from the point of view of sound.

Pre – Vedic

The Harappan civilisation or the Indus Valley civilization is thought to be the beginning of the history of the civilization of the Indian subcontinent and preceded the Aryanic Vedic age. The Indus Valley civilization had its pastoral lands, urban settlements and ports. Performing arts formed an integral part of the society and music and dance were probably the dominant forms. There are many evidence for the use of stringed, percussive and wind musical instruments made of mud, wood and reed and metal.

It is interesting to note  the reference to ‘Yaksha’ as the supreme being during this period as has been alluded to by some historians. We find the mention of Yaksha later in Rig Veda as a wolf or a plough, and in Buddhist tradition as supernatural beings who live in self created palaces anywhere in the air or the trees, etc. This may have a connection with the Yakshadharma mentions of which are found which might have been the practice with non Brahmanical deities and rituals.

The Indo Aryan Age

The Vedas 1500 – 600 BCE

The Vedas are the source material for Hindu philosophy and culture. Vedas transmitted in oral form and and its teachings are metaphysical in nature. They are books of hymns. It is conjectured that there may have been more than one lakh hymns, but now only a handful are known to us. They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit and these hymns were the performative & metaphysical aspects of rituals and their sonic & affective quality were considered as important as their meanings. Sung primarily to evoke the powers of the Unknown to aid the supplicant in their quest for survival, progeny, prosperity and power, they have developed and have interpreted in various ways as we shall see in the next 3000 years deepening the importance of sound in Hindu theology.

The Vedas are the scripture of the upper caste of the Aryan community who were semi nomadic pastoralists. Veda is knowledge derived from the word ‘vid’ which means ‘to be,to know, to think, and to benefit from.”

The three divisions of Vedic knowledge are:

1) Stuti : a solemn reverential remembrance and description of the attributes, nature, character and function of divine powers. 

2) Prathana : prayers to Divine to rise above our realistic effort and potential.

3) Upasana : meditation and surrender to the divine. 

There are two ways to perceive the Vedas 1) from the viewpoint of sound and 2) from the viewpoint of meaning.

There are four Vedas: the R̥igveda, Sāmaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda with the Rg Veda being the oldest. The first three are the provinces of individual priests, who function together to perform the solemn rituals of the Vedic liturgical system, later, in the middle Vedic period, known as śrauta rituals. Each of those three Vedas also represents a different type of ritual speech. Thus, the R̥igvedas (book of knowledge) belongs to the Hotar priest, who recites or chants the poetry; the Sāmaveda (the book of knowledge sung with Svara or melody) to the Udgātar priest, who sings the poetry to set tunes called sāmans. The vast majority of the verbal material in the Sāmaveda is borrowed from the R̥gveda. The Yajurveda (book of rituals) is the realm of the Adhvaryu priest; his verbal product is the yajus, a short verbal formula that generally accompanies the physical actions that are the main task of the Adhvaryu. The Atharvaveda stands outside of this ritual system and consists primarily of hymns and spells of a more “popular” nature, often magical or healing.  

The center of religious life of this community was the ‘yajna’ or ritual sacrifice where a central fire was lit mostly at dawn accompanied by oral recitation of ritual language or mantra. For the experience of the yajna to be considered a success, the sound of speech (mantra) must be in conjunction with that of Agni (fire). The role of sound in Vedic ritual is inextricably bound up with culturally specific notions of cosmic creation,mythology, poetic intuition, and performative verbal art, accordingly the complexities and mystery of mantras.I

Indra was the primary God of the Rig Vedas and he is supposed to be the fountainhead of language and sound. Initially his presence is invoked though daily morning and afternoon rituals which consist of hymn singing by poets. The central myth of the Rig Veda is the slaying of the monster Vrta by Indra, thus freeing the waters to flow and life to start on earth. The slaying of Vrta some believe is the breaking of silence (anahata) or even the starting of civilisations through the birth of profane sound (ahata) or the flowing or Nadis (rivers) which may be caused also much terror and destruction for the non Aryans or the enemies of the Aryans whose houses were probably made of baked bricks or simply of the bamboo or reeds. It is also conjectured that this breaking of the sluice valves (Bila) in the dam atop a mountain on which lay the metaphorical Vrta, led to the great flood which was the cause of the destruction of the Indus Valley Civilisation and the beginning of the Vedic age.

The concept of Sound and speech was personified by the word ‘Vak’ which is feminine noun meaning speech, voice, talk, language (also of animals), sound (also of animals), objects such as stone, drum etc.

We see the appearance of Vak in Book 1 , hymn 164, verse 45

“Speech is measured in four feet [/quarters]. Brahmins of inspired thinking know these.

They do not set in motion the three that are imprinted in secret; the sons of Manu speak the fourth (foot/quarter) of speech. ” which later gave rise to the philosophy of grammar whereby sound has 4 stages : 1) Para 2) Pasyanti 3) Madhyama 4) Vaikhari

It is Vaikhari which is the audible sound, the rest cannot be heard.

In terms of the emergence of meaningful sound, Patanjali who is the author of Mahabhashya (around 2nd century BCE) interprets a hymn in Rig Veda (Book 4 hymn 58 verse 3) identifying the ‘great Lord’ in the following hymn as the ‘sound’

“it has four horns (substantive, verb, prefix, indeclinable) three legs (past, present, future), two heads (two types of sounds) and seven hands (seven case terminations which is essential for the syntax construction in Sanksrit language) . The bull, tied in three different places (where sound is produced as per the Vedic tradition : chest, throat & head) repeatedly shouts that the great Lord has entered into mortals”.

The Vedic notion of the eternity of sound rests in the three philosophical axioms : 1) sound is eternal like space, since both are imperceptible to touch 2) sound is eternal and not liable to perish immediately after its utterance, inasmuch as it is capable of been given to others as in the case of a teacher communicating word to his people. 3) sound is eternal and there is no cognition of the cause that might destroy it.

The earliest presence of musical instruments is in the Rig Veda – book (mandala)8. Sukta (hymn) 69 . Verse 9

In the 10th book of Rig Veda, in hymn 125 , Goddess Vak appears as a different entity from Indra and proclaims her divine qualities.

I roam with the Rudras and the Vasus,

I with the Ādityas and the All Gods.  bear both Mitra and Varuṇa,

I Indra and Agni, I both the Aśvins. I bear the swollen soma, I Tvaṣṭar and Pūṣan and Bhaga. I establish wealth for the man offering the oblation, who pursues (his ritual duties) well, who sacrifices and presses.

I am ruler, assembler of goods, observer foremost among those deserving the sacrifice. Me have the gods distributed in many places—so that I have many stations and cause many things to enter (me). 

Through me he eats food—whoever sees, whoever breathes, whoever hears what is spoken. Without thinking about it, they live on me.

 Listen, o you who are listened to: it’s a trustworthy thing I tell you. Just I myself say this, savored by gods and men: “Whom I love, just him I make formidable, him a formulator, him a seer,him of good wisdom.” 

I stretch the bow for Rudra, for his arrow to smash the hater of the sacred formulation. I make combat for the people. I have entered Heaven and Earth. 

I give birth to Father (Heaven) on his (own) head [=Agni]; my womb is in the waters, in the sea. 

Thence I spread forth across all worlds, and yonder heaven with its height I touch.

  I, just like the wind, blow forth, grasping at all worlds, beyond heaven, beyond this earth here—of such size in my greatness have I come into being.”

The early explanation of the philosophy of sound in Vedas can be found in Atharvaveda.

“When pranic energy passes through a particular physical structure such as a reed or the larynx, sound is produced. When rhythm is added to sound, music is produced. When the segments of sound are related to particular points of the speech mechanism, phonemes, basic units of language, are formed. And when these elements of sound are joined and formed in correspondence with thought and awareness then language is created. When feeling and emotion is added to language and expressed, then song is created and composed. Thus from Rks, thought energies of consciousness composed in language joined to celebrative joy, the Samans are created. When the music of song and joy of consciousness are joined to practical situations in the holy business of living, then the Yajus are created as holy formulations of life’s values. And then from thought, songs and practical formulae of holy living, the comprehensive body of Atharvans is created. The classification of Vedic knowledge is thus explained in terms of knowledge (Rgveda), song (Samaveda), Action (Yajurveda), and the comprehensive message of Atharva-veda which is also known as Brahma-veda. In this way, from the elements of divine energy, sound, thought, feeling and emotion specially love and joy, all language and linguistic composition, both divine and human, secular and sacred, are created and composed.”

The role of loud singing (Udgitha) was considered to be the essence of the Vedas. Explaining “The sense of the Rig Veda is the Sama Veda. The essence of Sama Veda is Udgitha (loud singing). This is the quintessence of the essences, the highest, the supreme. 

The explanation of the sonic experience of a concert found in the Vedas is as follows : The Gargara(-instrument) will gurgle downward, the Godhā(-vīṇā) will keep resounding all around, and the Piṅgā(-string) will keep quivering all around. The sacred formulation is offered to Indra.

The Upanishads (where Vak becomes OM (A + U + M)): 700 – 500 BCE

“The Upanishads form the concluding portion and contain the essence of the Vedas. They record the direct and immediate spiritual experience of Rishis, the seers of truth. They treat the origin and destiny of the soul, the nature of the universe, and the nature of the ultimate reality. ” 

108 Upanishads are known, 12 are the oldest and most important Upanishads which are the last chapters/parts of the Vedas and are considered to be the highest part of Vedas. 

The articulation deepening of the concept of sound as the manifestation of the divine happens with the emergence of the ‘OM’ as the word which contains within itself the entire universe occurs in the Upanishads. We find various Upanishads dealing with the concept of OM – including Chandogya Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Mandaka Upanishad, Prasna Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad,Mandukya Upanishad & Svetasvatara Upanishad.

There is an interesting story about the birth of the word ‘OM’

“In the Gopatha Brahmana attached to the later part of the Athara Veda, there is a section that has been titled the Pranava Upanishad.” 

In Gopatha Brahmana which is attached to the later part of the Atharva Veda, there is a story of a conflict between the gods and Asuras (demons) in the city of aindra of the Vasundhara kingdom. The Asuras were winning until the moment OM – who is the oldest son of Brahma led the God to a comeback. The reward for OM henceforth was that no holy text in the land would be chanted without invoking OM.

The other references to OM in the various Upanishads.

Svetasvatara Upanishad ” By making the body the lower piece of wood, and OM (A + U + M) the upper piece, and through the practice of the friction of meditation, one perceives the luminous Self, hidden like the fire in the wood “

“All the past, present & future, is indeed AUM. And whatever there is, beyond the three fold division of time – that also is truly AUM.” – Prasna Upanishads

Mandukya Upanishads explains A + U + M in detail. The letter A which is Vaisvanara Atman ( associated with the physical aspect of Brahman, also known as Virat which in turn is associated with the gross physical bodies) . The letter U is Taijasa Brahman which is the dream state associated with the cosmic mind. The letter M is associated with a state of deep sleep where the universe merges with the Prajna. 

The fourth state is Turiya which is without parts and without sound and cannot be expressed as any sound.

The Yogasikha Upanishad says that there is no mantra higher than nada (sound) and that there is no worship higher than the investigation of the Nada. This Upanishad also contains one of the earliest descriptions of the system of energy centers known as the chakra, along with the placement of nada.

The Darshana Upanishad describes the perception of sounds in the highest position,or chakra, in the body known as Brahma – Randhara – located in the region of the head. 

The Nadabindu Upanishad (100 BCE – 300 BCE) is attached to the Rig Veda – “the most interesting part of the Nadabindu Upanishad is its description of the auditory phenomenon that accompany certain yogic exercises … Composed in a yogic circle that specialized in mystical auctions – that is , in obtaining ecstasy through concentration on sounds .. Such concentration is acquired only by the application of a yogic technique (asana – sitting postures) , pranayama ( breathing exercises) etc. Its final objective is to transform the whole cosmos into a vast sonorous theophany.”

An instance of yogic meditation of the Nadabindu Upanishad is as follows :

This passage will also clear the difference between Dhvani (the field of sound) and Nada (the particular sound) .

The yogi after achieving the proper asana and breath pattern should :

1) listen to the sound (nada) in the interior of his right ear. This will drown every sound (dhvani) from outside. By perisiting, the sound will be heard subtler and subtler. At first it will be like what is produced by the ocean (jaladhi), the cloud (Jimuta) , the kettle drum (Bheri) and the waterfall (Nirjhara).

A little later it will be like the sound produced by a tabor (Mardala, or small drum), a big bell (Ghanta) and a military drum (kahala) and finally like the sound of the tinkling bell (kinkini), harp (vina) and bee (bhramara).

The Vedangas

The Vedangas were concerned with creating the rules of recitation of the Vedic hymns, rituals, grammar and linguistic analysis, etymology in a manner which made it possible for the efficient sustenance and growth of Aryan religious practice in India and also lay the rules for non Aryans to also adopt the Aryan philosophy, ways of worship, rituals and social conducts.

Since the sound of the chanting of Vedas was of paramount importance more than their meaning. The pronunciations and the order of words have to be exact for the chanting to have the desired magical effect. Hence in order to keep the accents & pronunciations of the hymns intact a supplementary group of Vedas named ‘Siksa’ was written.

The process of sound production in context of the human consciousness & body as described in the Siksa, which is a Vedanga is as follows. This is found in writings of Panini, Brhaddesi and Sangita – Ratnakara

1. The rising of the will to speak or produce sound in the atman (soul consciousness).

2. Activation of the mind.

3. Activation of the ‘fire’ or kinetic energy.

4. Propelling of the air upwards from the base of the navel.

In case of non-human (sound instruments), the last two steps of course are in the ‘outer space’ and through the mixture of the human ‘inner space’ and ‘outer space’.

A Sutra & the 5th Veda

Here, I’ll briefly refer to two important treatises which are unique and have an enormous impact on the society and culture of India. They are referred to here as ‘sound’ plays a very important role in both these books.

Now I’ll refer to the 2 most important texts of classical Sanskrit literature which were purportedly written around 2 nd century AD. They are the Kamasutra & Natyashastra.

Kamasutra

Kamasutra which was purportedly authored by Vatsyayana between the period 1st – 6th century CE is popular text which is but amongst the many such texts which dealt with sex practices were available at that time, including the Ratrirahaysa ( secret of the night), Rat Manjari (garland of love), Ras Manjari (the sprout of love), etc.

The Kamasutra thus brings to the forefront the critical functionality of sex and clearly lays down the rules of practice. According to the Kamasutra “a person acquainted with the true principle of science, who preserves his Dharma (virtue or religious merits), his Artha (worldly wealth) and his Kama ( pleasure of sexual gratification) and who has regard to the customs of the people, is sure to obtain the mastery over his senses.”

Kamasutra lays down the 64 arts which must be studied by a woman who wants to achieve success as a person of universal regard. Amongst this the art or skills associated with sound are

1. Singing

2. Playing musical instrument

3. Playing on musical glass tumblers filled with water

4. Chanting and intonation

Chapter 7 of Kamasutra, is titled ” On the various modes of patting and the sound appropriate to them”. This chapter prescribes the conscious reproduction of sounds in the course of lovemaking in the male female binaries,specifically during the acts of patting, striking and kissing.

Natyashastra

Natyashastra is a text probably written around 2nd century ACE, is an anthology of writings about performative arts & aesthetics. It contains within it the rasa sutra, which has played an immense role in the development of art and aesthetics in the Indian subcontinent. Natyashastra offers an in-depth insight into the relation between the psychological inner state and the impact of performances on audiences. It includes in its exposition , the effect of gestures, sounds and visual cues such as the costume and the backdrops Its authorship is attributed to Bharata although he could be a mythical author or it so thought that there could be multiple authors. Natyashastra, which is often studied along with Aristotle’s Poetics as the foundation for poetics and drama , through its 6000 couplets spread over 37 chapters, deals with every conceivable aspect of drama. Including sentiments, emotion, histrionics, dance, music, prosody, metrical pattern, stage effects, diction, costume, make up, training and actors and actresses & stage construction.

The task of constructing a playhouse was given to Vishwakarma who was the heavenly architect. Detailed descriptions are given about the different toes of the playhouse (there are 3 types) and the process, measurement and the rituals of making these. There is brief instruction about the acoustic quality of the playhouse which allows for clear reception of the sound produced during various types of performances. This includes the need of sound proofing and to ensure that the playhouse be of a medium size for the best reception of sound.

Quoting from Verse 80 – 81 ” the playhouse should be made like a mountain cavern and it should have two floors (on two different levels) and small windows ; it should be free from wind and should have good acoustic quality for (in such a playhouse) made free from the interference of wind, voice of actors and singers and the sound of music instruments will be clearly heard “.

According to Natyashastra, the drama is ‘Drsya Kavya’ – visible poetry.

Natyashastra states that sound is of “the nature of air and it is of two fold – Svaravana (tonal) and Abhidhanavana ( having a meaning). It speaks of the replication of the understanding of the process of sound production in a human body in the sound instruments. The human voice is referred to as Sariri vina and the instrument as Daravi vina (wooden lute).

Svaras (tones) are first born in the bodily vina, then they are transmitted to the wooden vina , then they go the drums and then to the cymbals. The human body is thought to be the source of sound as this is the field of a conscious ‘yogika’ experience.

“The realisation of the unity between the ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ space is the goal of musical culture as the below mentioned passage shows :

” By the will of the Atman, the Vayu that is moving upward from the base of the earth ( nabhi/navel) and is held on the ‘wall’ of the Nadis and in space is known as Svara, the delightful sound. ” – Prem Lata Sharma ( Relationship between voice and instruments in the Indian tradition).

Chapters 28 – 33 of Natyashastra are devoted to an explanation of the theory and practice of music. Music according to Natyshastra is of two types : vocal (gana) and instrumental (atodya). Regular musical instruments are of four kinds – stringed (Tata) , covered (avanaddha), solid (Ghana) and hollow (susira). Bharata has explained in detail every aspect of both vocal and instrumental music. It is important to note that Sanskrit plays begin and end with music.

I quote here from the last chapter of Natyashastra (Vol 1)  where Bharata in response to a question by the sages replies “I shall tell you the secrets of the purvaranga… Just as injury by weapons is warded off by the armour, or sin wiped away by sacrifice, so the sins in the form of obstacles are to be removed by worshipping gods, by praising gods, by benedictions, by describing peace of mind and actions, by the resounding playing of the musical instruments, by the sound of singing, etc ; the gods were pleased with these praises and songs and told me that my production was a pleasure to them and also to the assuras. So it will please the people also. So that entire part of the production is called Nandi. As long as the sound of that performance would be reverberating (in the theatre), so long no raksasa s and no evil leaders would invade it. As a matter of fact, even from marriage pandals or grounds of sacrifices for the good of the kings, the evil spirits will run away at the sound of the Nandi. Music, both instrumental & vocal, dance and songs are equal to the recitation of the Vedic mantras.”

Post Vedic Period

As the Aryan Hinduism started to evolve it became a synthesis of various Brahmanical and non Brahmanical practices. The worship of physical manifestation of gods in forms of deities and the absorption of animism known to Yakshadharma, became part of the practice. As the noted historian R. C. Majumdar puts it ” it was the belief in a ‘personal God’ to be worshiped with devotion (Bhakti) rather than an impersonal absolute (Brahman) to be realised through meditation and knowledge (Jnana) that marked the changed attitudes of those rebelling against the sacrificial performance prescribed in the Brahmana.

We can broadly say that the major sects of Hindusim – Goraknath , Sakti Tantra , Shavism and Vaishanism.

It is important to note that none of these sects were neither in complete sympathy with the ancient Brahmanism and nor were they excommunicated by it. There were new texts and rites to replace or at least supplement the Vedas and Vedic sacrifice. Most often the sects shared coo in deities, rituals and practices and yet they were in constant disagreement about various things.

Sound continued to play a central role in the practice of rituals as well as a way to transcend reality in order to create magical effect, both as an individual and also as a collective. One of the recurring practices is Japa which is the continuous and repeated chanting similar to dhikr in Islam. 

Naths

The Nath yogis aimed at the attainment if Sivahood through the practice of Hathya Yoga which is a physiological practice which removes disease,decay and death. The Goraka – Sataka which is the fundamental text of the Naths concludes with a verse which effectively ascribes the hearing of internal sound (nada) as the state when one has become diseaseless . This state is achieved after one cleanses the Nadis (esoteric channels in the body) , breath control and by having a good appetite.

the concept of Nada Bindu 

“in the philosophy of Goraknath “each letter is a particularised sound embodiment of Siva Sakti and is associated with and manifested from a particular center within the living body (chakra). Each letter is pronounced with a Bindu attached to it . Bindu denotes Siva (also male sperm) and bija denotes Sakti  ( also receptacle, source – that is matrka). Nada evolves from a mutual communion between them. ” – A K Banerjea 

Sakta Tantra

SAKTISM is the sect whose Supreme Power is the Supreme Goddess (Energy) which is worshipped under numerous names and different female forms, e.g. Durga, Kali, Parvati, Tara, Sarasvati, etc who are manifested variously – sometimes sensual and sometimes destructive drawn as they are from diverse cultural sources and cultic rituals and rites.

The entire tantric worldview is permeated by sonic utterance or mantra.

The creation of the universe in Sakta Tantra is analogous to the process of human reproduction. Several tantric cosmogonies describe Nada – Brahman (cosmic sound) as being the vibration resulting from the sexual acts of Siva and his consort Sakti.

The Goddess (Energy) emerges out of her desires from the void which is the source of Supreme Energy, through nada or vibration, and turns into a bindu or dot which is the ghanihuta – Sakti (crystallised and concentrated energy). The bindus stirs forth (prasarati) as multiple forces of the creative operation through further vibrations (spandanas) producing more bindus, diverse types of sound (Sabda – Brahman), aksaras, words audible under the Vaikhari state of VAK (speech).

Tantrisim views the material universe as an immensely complex web of vibrations and resonances which all originate from a single self – originated point of sound – the Nada Bindu . In spiritual practice these vibrations are to be reversed in order to rediscover and consequently to return to the primordial vibration itself. 

In Saktaism, the Sabda Brahman is depicted by Ghanta (bells), Sankha (conchshell) and Vina (stringed instrument) .In some Sakta rites and rituals vocal and instrumental music is used.

The most notable aspect of Saktism is the mystic concept of kundalini. The aim of a practitioner of Saktaism is the realisation of Sabda – Brahman, as the Supreme power (Mahasakti) in the rousing of kundalini through Tantric practices and secret chants. For this the cultivation of sound is essential. 

Saivisim 

In Saiva Agama (early Saiva text) sound is female subordinate (Param VAK) to make supreme reality of Param Siva. The practice in Saivism is similar to Sakta Tantra. The sound system of the Saiva Agama tradition is referred to as Nada Tattva or Nada Bindu Tattva. Nada denotes the total sonic action that envelopes the field of sound and not merely the sound. In Kashmir Saivism arises the concept of an anahata (unstuck  sound) – which is a sound which has no material cause and hence is everlasting. 

Vaishnavism 

Vaishnavism began with the religion of the Bhagavata – the worship of Lord Bhagavan and they initially worshipped Lord Vasudeva who later on was identified with Krishna who in turn subsequently was considered to be avatar of Lord Vishnu. So this sect considers as their supreme deity various names like Vasudeva, Narayan, Vishnu & Hari.

This sect propagates the achievement of liberation through a process of Bhakti (pure devotion). There are several subjects of Vaishnavism in different geographical centers in India.

One of the seven pathways for reaching the divine in this sect, is through the singing of Kirtans. The word Kirtan means to mention, tell, name, recite, praise, glorify, etc. It means the repeated utterance of the name and description of the qualities of the divine being or beings. 

The sacred, according to Vaishnav text (Pancarnta), which had non Brahamanical sources, is contained first and foremost in sound form, which is the power of God. Accordingly the diverse part of Gods nature are represented by Mantras which in turn are able to sanctify and transform non sound forms of land and material into sacred temples, diagrams and icons. Lord Krishna (avatar if Lord Vishnu) revealed his personal appreance in sacred sound in Bhagvatam Purana. Gaudiya Vaishvism which is a sect founded by Lord Chaitnya lays great emphasis on Nama Sankirtana which is high volume chanting considered transcendental sound and designates God head. All other sounds are mundane and constitute something else. 

It is the Maha Mantra which Shri Chaitnya received from at his initiation which is considered as the surest means of salvation in the present Kali Yuga. 

Hence I conclude this essay with at this juncture of history of Brahmanical Hindu theology where clearly sound along with visual & performative arts which were proscribed by the authorities and documented widely have been seen as manifestation of the divine and hence attributed with salvific functionalities. But one can say that this was only a part of the sound practices which must have existed during this time of history and that we know little about much, which were considered non Brahmanical.

References

1. Musical instruments of the lower Indus Valley of Sind by N A Baloch.

2. Vaishnavism & Shaivism by Dr. Mahesh Vikram Singh & Dr. Brij Bhusan Shrivastav.

3. Natyashastra by Bharat Muni translated by Dr. Manmohan Ghosh.

4. Kamashastra by Vatsyayana.

5. Philosophy of Gorakhnath by A K Banerjea.

6. Kirtan : a study of the sonic manifestation of the divine in the popular Hindu culture of Banaras by S Slawek.

7. The Upanishads translated by Swami Nikhilananda.

8. The Rg Vedas , the earliest religious poetry of India, translated by Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton.

9. The civilised demos : the Harappans in Rgveda by Malati J. Shendge.

10. Relationship between voice and instruments in the Indian tradition by Prem Lata Sharma.

11. Importance of sound in the tradition of Vedic chanting by Satkari Mukhopadhyaya.

12. Agama anusandhani samiti –  Sir John woodruffe and Atul Behari Ghosh. 

14. MC Joshi, conceptual aspects of sound in Saktism.

15. Sonic theology by Guy Beck.

Recounted by Sudipta Dawn

Sudipta Dawn is an independent researcher, theatre worker and the founder & artistic director of Culture Monks.

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